Online services provide essential infrastructure for the American economy, culture, and society. Cloud infrastructure, content delivery networks (CDNs), web hosts, and data analytics services are the quiet but dynamic backbone of the commercial internet. These online services now act as infrastructural components to other economic and social activity. They are generally lower on the stack than the more consumer-facing services at the top of the stack. (For more on the conceptual model of the internet stack, see Figure 1.) They are constant and ubiquitous, even if invisible to most internet users, and for this reason are often overlooked by regulators and the public until something goes wrong.219 A special focus on online infrastructural services is warranted due to their tremendous impact on the economy, the environment, cybersecurity, human rights, and freedom of expression.
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